The Invisible Divide: Why Bridging the Digital Divide Begins with the Mind, Not the Metrics

Learning Never Retires

My father, now in his seventies, has always hungered for learning—more than I ever have, even as a postdoctoral researcher. Since retiring, he has filled his days reading at the library, collecting certificates, and studying new languages every evening. Recently, his curiosity has turned toward his new companion—ChatGPT.

True to his old-fashioned ways, he began by reading a book about ChatGPT before ever trying it himself. Then, gradually, he started experimenting. When he sent me poems written by ChatGPT, I could easily imagine how absorbed he must have been—poring over the tool, testing its limits, and marveling at what it could do.

It must have been about a year ago when he told me he was going to attend a workshop on how to use ChatGPT. I assumed it was one of those digital skills sessions run by local organizations in South Korea. But that afternoon, he came home much earlier than expected. My father—the kind of learner who never leaves the classroom until every question is answered—had left early.

When I asked why, he hesitated. The “workshop,” it turned out, wasn’t really about learning at all. It had been organized by an insurance company promoting funeral plans, using a brief ChatGPT tutorial as bait to draw older adults in. No one had mentioned that, of course.

I was angry—not only at the deception, but also at how easily genuine curiosity could be exploited. I was reminded how fragile the line is between empowerment and exploitation in digital learning spaces, especially for older adults trying to keep pace in an AI-driven world.

That night, I thought about Marylanders Online, the statewide digital equity initiative I was affiliated with at the University of Maryland. The initiative offers a broad range of educational resources aimed at strengthening community capacity, providing free courses on digital and AI literacy for all, particularly for marginalized populations eager to learn.

How transformative it would be, I thought, if people like my father—deeply motivated, endlessly curious, and determined not to be left behind—had real access to programs like that. He is, after all, exactly the kind of learner such initiatives are meant for: the kind who still believes that learning, at any age, can be a way of life.

The Hidden Engine: Tech Readiness

Watching my father—and the people who participate in Marylanders Online—often reminds me of a concept I return to again and again: tech readiness (also called digital readiness). The term refers to an individual’s propensity to embrace technology to accomplish goals in both personal and professional contexts (Parasuraman, 2000), as well as their preparedness to adapt to ongoing technological change (Chen et al., 2023). But the term goes far beyond mere technical capacity. It entails a comprehensive form of readiness––one that also involves cognitive (e.g., Am I able to understand how this technology fits into what I already know?), motivational (e.g., Am I willing enough to try this technology, even if I might fail or feel unsure?), and socioemotional aspects (e.g., Am I comfortable connecting and learning with others in digital spaces?), all of which shape how individuals navigate and integrate technology into their lives while adapting to the ever-evolving digital transformation.

I first encountered the concept of tech readiness in a 2016 Pew Research Center report, authored by current Benton Senior Fellow, John Horrigan. The key insight: levels of preparedness to use digital tools fall along a wide continuum, and many people are “relatively hesitant” (52%). What struck me was that low readiness did not simply mean low tech adoption. It also meant needing help to set up new devices, being unaware of emerging tech terms, lacking confidence in computer or information-searching skills, or rarely using the internet for learning. In other words, tech readiness represents a multidimensional construct that goes beyond ability. It reflects readiness in attitude and in practice, which incorporates both enabling factors (e.g., optimism and innovativeness) and inhibiting factors (e.g., discomfort and insecurity) (Nasution et al., 2018). In the context of digital literacy, tech readiness serves as a critical precondition for effective learning and participation, shaping learners’ willingness to explore, experiment, and persist in using new technologies.

Those striving to advance digital equity must begin by recognizing its invisible center—the readiness that determines whether individuals can trust, adapt to, and ultimately thrive alongside intelligent systems. How well do we understand the inner enablers and barriers that shape one’s readiness? And how can that understanding be woven into real-world programs that aim to mitigate the divide?

More Than Demographics: Understanding People, Not the Statistics

People engage with digital technology in relation to different psychological factors (Peters et al., 2018). Think of it this way:

• How strong is your motivation to try out a new technology?
• How easy or difficult does it feel to access devices or the internet in your daily life?
• How confident do you feel when dealing with technical tasks, such as installing a new app or resolving an error?
• And how much autonomy do you feel you have when deciding how to use technology in different areas of your life?

Together, these factors form the psychological dimension of tech readiness.

Now, why does it matter?

I’ve come to believe that community anchor institutions offering digital literacy support need to look beyond the numbers. It is common, even in research, to explain the digital divide through demographics—by age, income, education level, race. And, yes, these patterns are visible and important. But they only tell part of the story of tech readiness.

When we stop at demographics, we overlook what truly matters—the people behind the stats. Every learner brings a different story. Many digital equity institutions already do thoughtful work to understand their community members. They talk with learners, listen to their goals, and tailor lessons based on what each person wants to achieve. But even in these well-designed spaces, moving beyond demographic boxes allows us to see something deeper—the inner spark that drives people to want to try and keep learning. Take my father, for example. He was born in the 1950s, an endlessly curious person, and now spends his evenings experimenting with AI tools. On paper, he might be placed in a “beginner” class. But that label misses the sheer joy he brings to learning. What matters more than someone’s age or the boxes they check is how ready they feel to explore, experiment, and evolve. That readiness is where real digital inclusion begins.

Educators, practitioners, and policymakers should pay closer attention to the psychological side of tech readiness. A learner’s mindset—how motivated or anxious they feel—can determine whether technology becomes a bridge or a barrier. Some learners may require patient, step-by-step guidance to rebuild their confidence, while others may thrive when given creative challenges or leadership roles within the program. When support is adjusted to these differences, digital literacy initiatives become more human, adaptive, and, ultimately, more effective.

This adjustable approach also offers institutions a more nuanced way to evaluate program effectiveness. Instead of asking only, “How many people completed the course?” or “How many gained digital skills?”, we might ask, “To what extent did learners feel more empowered in their digital environment?” That shift—from counting outputs to understanding growth—redefines what success in digital inclusion truly means.

And if we start to see patterns—some learners thriving while others continue to struggle—it’s a signal to look even deeper. The key question isn’t who they are, but what support they need to facilitate learning. By understanding why such gaps appear, we can identify where our programs fall short and how they can evolve.

So, What’s the Story in the Data?

Turning back to Marylanders Online, I found that the initiative provided an ideal methodological ground to test the questions I had developed about tech readiness. In collaboration with Dr. Mega Subramaniam (Associate Dean for Faculty at the University of Maryland College of Information, and Co-Principal Investigator of Marylanders Online) and Scott Beland (a recent Master of Library and Information Science graduate from the same college), I conducted a study to understand how digital literacy programs (DLPs) work from the learners’ point of view. (Our findings are now available online. See Kim et al., 2025).

We wanted to see how a person’s tech readiness—especially its psychological dimensions—shapes what they gain from DLPs. With the help of Marylanders Online’s network—which includes libraries, schools, housing centers, and nonprofits—we reached residents who had previously taken part in DLPs. Our goal was straightforward: to uncover what makes some learners thrive while others struggle—depending on their mindset toward engaging with technology.

We analyzed 305 survey responses from Maryland residents who had experience with DLPs of some kind—training sessions, group classes, workshops, or seminars (273 people; 89.5%), one-on-one instruction by appointment (278; 91.1%), or self-directed learning with guided materials (261; 85.6%). On average, respondents reported using the Internet for 3–4 hours per day and encountering digital difficulties about once a month, such as issues related to device or app setup, network/Wi-Fi connectivity, and online services. Each respondent’s story was shaped not only by how regularly they engaged with DLPs, but also by the mindset they brought to learning—how open they were to weaving technology into their daily lives, and what hesitations they carried along the way.

And here’s what we found. When people really dive into DLPs and, as a result, gain greater digital literacy, they begin to see themselves changing—becoming more capable of using technology to navigate and succeed in the digital world. This transformation reflects what we refer to as digital empowerment. For example, respondents increasingly expressed beliefs such as “I can customize technology to suit my needs” or “Technology gives me the freedom to use it as I wish,” compared to before joining DLPs. Furthermore, they got better at putting technology to work in their everyday lives—for instance, realizing more and more that “technology provides me with various options to stay connected with others, find jobs or learning opportunities, get involved in the community, and access public services.”

Yet, these successes rarely happen by accident. They grow from something deeply human—the psychology that shapes how we approach change. One key factor is that first spark of motivation to adopt technology—the initial decision to bring it into your life. Whether it begins with curiosity (e.g., “This looks fun—I want to try it”) or necessity (e.g., “I need to use it for work”), that early willingness to adopt technology often sets the tone for everything that follows. It’s what turns digital literacy into digital empowerment. Those who regularly took part in DLPs tended to make more noticeable progress toward this outcome as their digital literacy increased, especially when they were highly motivated to adopt and explore new technologies.

And there was another decisive factor—autonomy in everyday tech use. A sense of autonomy wasn’t about being completely self-sufficient. It was about staying proactive and taking initiative—rather than always asking others to do things online on their behalf, also called proxy Internet use (Grošelj et al., 2022). For people with this sense of autonomy, DLPs aren’t just external assistance—they are resources to be mobilized: finding an instructor when needed, using online guides, joining a peer group to learn together, and so on. In our study, the sense of autonomy transformed digital literacy into positive life outcomes, enabling regular DLP participants to utilize technology in ways that truly matter: staying in touch with others, finding employment, or accessing basic needs such as food and housing. But without autonomy, neither active participation in DLPs nor the resulting skill gains necessarily translated into tangible outcomes.

When Deficits Become Drivers: The “Poor-Get-Richer” Effect

Our study uncovered something even more intriguing about the physical and emotional barriers that can hinder people from developing digital skills. DLP participants often reported concerns related to device and Internet access (e.g., “I worry that devices are too expensive,” “It’s inconvenient that the Internet signal is poor where I live”) as well as anxiety about performing tech-related tasks, such as operating devices or navigating the Internet (“Unknown device errors or Internet issues make me feel uneasy when searching for information.” “I’m afraid I won’t be able to find what I need online.”). These constraints don’t always doom people to fall behind. With the right kind of support, what once seemed like limitations can become catalysts for growth. Our findings reveal that participants experiencing anxiety or issues around access made more remarkable progress in digital empowerment as their digital literacy improved through frequent DLP participation, even surpassing their supposedly “more ready” peers.

For me, this finding isn’t just hopeful—it’s electric. This finding suggests that individuals facing the first- and second-level digital divides—that is, gaps in access and skills caused by resource and knowledge deficits—can indeed be lifted from further marginalization. This challenges an assumption that “disadvantaged” individuals are passive or disinterested in digital engagement. With the right interventions from public DLP initiatives, this narrative can change.

Having low tech readiness doesn’t necessarily mean lacking the mindset to learn (Testers et al., 2020). Readiness—the psychological willingness to grow and be resilient—can exist even when access is limited or the skills feel shaky at first. And, DLPs aren’t just about teaching skills—they can spark transformation. When designed with the right physical and emotional support, these programs empower those who’ve long felt left behind to grow the fastest. In our study, this “poor-get-richer” effect shows how DLPs can turn disadvantage into momentum, helping people move from the margins to the heart of digital life.

This growth story unfolded not in competition among participants, but in safety. Participants felt understood and encouraged to try, fail, and try again. I saw the same dynamic in my father. He is the kind of learner who dislikes disclosing his weaknesses, yet when he finds a resource or environment that feels “comfortable,” he becomes one of the most proactive, self-directed learners I know.

Meanwhile, our finding also offers a reminder to community anchor institutions running DLPs. Their role isn’t just to teach people how to use new tools; their role is to create a safe, encouraging space where learning feels possible—where curiosity can grow without fear of judgment. That sense of comfort—the belief that it’s okay to stumble—is everything. When someone has trouble getting online or using a device, what they need isn’t criticism, but choices and support. And, maybe most of all, they need to know they’re in good company—learning side by side with others who understand what that struggle feels like.

Tech readiness is something you can develop. People who begin with the most uncertainty can often grow the most, as long as they’re met with patience, empathy, and a space that welcomes their pace of learning.

From Readiness to Resilience: Practical Tips for DLP Providers

If there’s one lesson from our research, it’s that lasting digital inclusion means sustaining learners’ readiness—and nurturing resilience when that readiness is low. Here are some recommendations based on what we found:

1. Keep the spark alive.
Early curiosity in technology can be powerful but fleeting. DLPs should help sustain that spark through learning approaches that keep people motivated—such as experiential, problem-based activities, and peer mentoring—along with consistent check-ins that help them stay engaged over time. Creating small moments that celebrate progress—whether earning a digital badge, receiving a certificate, or reaching a simple milestone—turns learning into a sense of achievement rather than obligation. Community showcases that let learners experiment with new devices can also go a long way in breaking down the fear and distance many feel toward unfamiliar technology.

2. Turn challenges into catalysts.

The fear of making mistakes—or of feeling left out—isn’t insurmountable: it’s where resilience begins. For anyone with tech-phobia, a little guidance can go a long way. Simple visuals, one-on-one help from peers, or breaking big goals into smaller ones can slowly turn hesitation into confidence. And when people hear stories of others who’ve faced the same frustrations—crashing apps, lost passwords, or the feeling of being “too behind to start”—they realize they’re not alone. These shifts often happen in the most familiar places—local libraries, neighborhood centers, or even housing communities—where learning happens side by side with people you already trust. That’s where DLPs really come alive: not as formal lessons, but as shared experiences that turn everyday challenges into small victories.

3. Foster agency, not dependency.
DLPs should be a resource, not a crutch. The goal isn’t just to teach people what buttons to click, but to help them make choices that fit their own goals and values. Community anchor institutions can nurture a sense of ownership by giving learners room to explore and make mistakes safely. Open lab hours, peer-led sessions, or small personal projects can build confidence through practice, not instruction alone. Even simple tweaks—like starting a class with real-life goals (“I want to video call my grandson”) or letting participants choose their learning path—can shift the experience from dependence to discovery. That’s how support becomes empowerment.

Dr. Yeweon Kim is a postdoctoral researcher at the Center for Trustworthy AI at Seoul National University and a Benton Opportunity Fund Fellow. Her research explores the societal impacts of information and communication technologies at individual and community levels, with a focus on digital empowerment, equity, and ethics. 

References

Chen, X., Chang-Richards, A., Ling, F. Y. Y., Yiu, T. W., Pelosi, A., & Yang, N. (2023). Developing a readiness model and a self-assessment tool for adopting digital technologies in construction organizations. Building Research & Information, 51(3), 241–256. https://doi.org/101080/09613218.2022.2136130

Grošelj, D., Reisdorf, B. C., Dolničar, V., & Petrovčič, A. (2022). A decade of proxy Internet use: the changing role of socio-demographics and family support in nonusers’ indirect Internet access to online services. The Information Society, 38(4), 240-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2022.2080782

Kim, Y. W., Beland, S. E., & Subramaniam, M. (2025). Crossing the third-level digital divide through digital literacy programs. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.70032

Parasuraman, A. (2000) Technology readiness index (TRI) a multiple-item scale to measure readiness to embrace new technologies. Journal of Service Research, 2, 307-320. https://doi.org/10.1177/109467050024001

Peters, D., Calvo, R. A., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Designing for motivation, engagement and wellbeing in digital experience. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00797

Pew Research Center. (2016, September). Digital readiness gaps. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/09/20/digital-readiness-gaps/

Nasution, R. A., Rusnandi, L. S. L., Qodariah, E., Arnita, D., & Windasari, N. A. (2018). The evaluation of digital readiness concept: Existing models and future directions. The Asian Journal of Technology Management, 11(2), 94-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.12695/ajtm.2018.11.2.3

Testers, L., Gegenfurtner, A., & Brand-Gruwel, S. (2020). Taking affective learning in digital education one step further: Trainees’ affective characteristics predicting multicontextual pre-training transfer intention. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02189