Developing technical and work-related skills, the central goals of Vocational Education and Training (VET), is critical for fostering employment opportunities and ensuring economic stability (Yang, 2015). Economic prosperity depends on an employable workforce with high employment rates and opportunities for self-employment, particularly in regions with limited job availability (Bhurtel, 2015). The effectiveness of VET depends on vocational instructors, who play a critical role in equipping graduates with a competitive edge in the job market (Zhou et al., 2022). To fulfill these demands, vocational instructors must actively pursue professional development opportunities both within and beyond the classroom (Zhou et al., 2022). The rapid and frequent evolution in contemporary society has further underscored the importance of professional development, as instructors are now expected to swiftly adapt to evolving environments and continuously refine their teaching practices to meet shifting skill demands (Zhou et al., 2022) (see Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3).

Advancements in ICT have made it more accessible to instructors, facilitating the creation of innovative teaching materials and offering educational benefits such as flexible, interactive, and personalized learning experiences, improved communication, critical thinking, and collaboration (Lawrence & Tar, 2018). These tools support diverse instructional strategies, including blended learning, learning-by-doing training, and competency-based assessments — approaches particularly suited for vocational education. ICT also facilitates individualized learning pathways, allowing instructors to tailor content and pacing to diverse student needs and learning styles, which is especially crucial in practical, skills-oriented disciplines. In response, governments have increased investments in educational technology and school digitization (Antonietti et al., 2022).

However, many instructors remain hesitant to fully embrace ICT in the classroom, as their perspectives and attitudes largely determine adoption (Ferede et al., 2021). Effective ICT integration in VET relies on instructors’ technological proficiency, positive attitudes, and ability to align technology with pedagogical goals (Bin et al., 2020; Kler, 2014). Without intentional pedagogical integration, ICT tools risk being underused or misaligned with competency-based vocational goals. Instructors need support in redesigning curriculum delivery methods that integrate technology in a meaningful, context-relevant way. Therefore, professional development initiatives should not only focus on improving digital skills but also on strengthening pedagogical capacities for instructional design, student-centered learning, and authentic assessment through digital means.

Despite widespread agreement on the potential of ICT in education (Teeroovengadum et al., 2017), little is known about the psychological and contextual factors that influence vocational instructors’ adoption and use of ICT, particularly in developing countries. Our first research question investigates what psychological factors are associated with instructors’ intention to use and their actual use for instructional purposes. Understanding these factors is essential to inform professional development programs that not only build technological proficiency but also empower instructors to integrate ICT in pedagogically meaningful ways that enhance student learning. Moreover, identifying these psychological drivers helps uncover how instructors perceive the pedagogical utility of ICT tools—not simply as administrative aids or content delivery mechanisms, but as resources to activate student learning and hands-on engagement.

Second, prior studies emphasize that instructors require more than just access to infrastructure and resources to adopt ICT effectively. They also need leadership support that encourages experimentation, provides motivation, and aligns ICT use with broader educational goals. Effective school leadership – through principals or department heads – can influence how instructors perceive the value of ICT and its relevance to their teaching practices (Teeroovengadum et al., 2017). Beyond resource allocation, leadership team support encompasses strategic vision, pedagogical encouragement, and continuous motivation, which can foster a culture of innovation and improve overall teaching quality. Strong leadership also plays a critical pedagogical role by encouraging faculty collaboration, peer mentoring, and shared best practices for using ICT tools to facilitate interactive demonstrations, skill assessments, and workplace simulations. Our second question, therefore, explores whether leadership team support plays a critical role in enhancing instructors’ behavioral intention and use of ICT for education.

To investigate these questions in a meaningful and policy-relevant context, we focus on two large developing countries: Ethiopia and Tanzania. First, both countries are among Africa’s five most populous nations and face challenges in expanding higher education access (The World Bank, 2020). VET institutions serve as critical pathways for many students transitioning from primary and secondary education, and both governments are actively promoting VET to address youth unemployment. Second, although Ethiopia and Tanzania have introduced ICT policies in higher education, implementation varies significantly due to differences in infrastructure and governance. Ethiopia maintains a state-controlled telecommunications monopoly, which limits private sector engagement and constrains school-level autonomy. In contrast, Tanzania has privatized its telecommunications sector, resulting in broader ICT access and more decentralized leadership structures (Debela & Marijani, 2023).

To analyze ICT adoption among instructors in these contexts, we apply the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) model (Venkatesh et al., 2012) to identify psychological and contextual determinants of ICT use in VET. To examine the impact of school leadership, we extend UTAUT2 by incorporating leadership team support (LTS)—adapted from the top management support (TMS) construct—as an additional explanatory factor. We also conduct a multi-group analysis (MGA) to compare motivational and behavioral patterns between Ethiopian and Tanzanian instructors.

Our study contributes to both the information systems and teacher education literature by extending the UTAUT2 model to include leadership team support, while also providing a cross-cultural analysis of ICT adoption in VET. More importantly, we offer pedagogical insights into how ICT can reshape vocational teaching practices by enabling instructors to adopt student-centered, technology-enhanced strategies. These innovations can support better skill alignment with labor market needs, increase students’ digital confidence, and create more inclusive and engaging learning environments. Through this lens, ICT becomes a lever for not only improving access and equity but also transforming the very nature of teaching and learning in vocational settings across developing countries.

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